American Artillery and the Medal of Honor by Colonel David T. Zabecki Field Artillery, USAR Military Monograph 49

Book Excerpt

A Merriam Press original publication

Introduction

This is the story of the American Artillery and the Medal of Honor. It is not the story of a single service or a particular branch of service. Rather, it is the story of an American fighting arm and the men who won the Medal of Honor serving that arm.

It is the story of the land-based Artillery of the United States (Field, Coastal, and Air Defense) and the men involved with the delivery of fires from large caliber, crew-served weapons designed primarily for indirect fire.

The story deals mostly with Soldiers and Marines, but it also includes some Sailors. It is a story that constantly reminds us of the Napoleonic dictum: God fights on the side with the best Artillery.

A Brief History of the Medal of Honor

The Medal of Honor is the highest decoration that can be awarded for combat heroism to a member of the United States Armed Forces. It has been awarded 3,413 times to 3,385 individuals and nine Unknowns [Table 1]. Because it is presented "in the name of the Congress of the United States" it is often called the Congressional Medal of Honor.

The Evolution of American Military Awards

The first award to be worn on an American military uniform was created by General George Washington, acting on his authority as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. On 7 August 1782 Washington issued the order establishing the Honorary Badge of Military Merit to recognize "singularly meritorious actions." The badge itself was made of purple cloth in the form of a heart and was worn on the left breast of the uniform coat. The award, limited to enlisted men and non-commissioned officers, conferred many officers' privileges on the recipient. The first Badge of Military Merit was awarded in 1783 to Sergeant Elijah Churchill, 2nd Light Dragoons, for his conduct during the fighting on Long Island. Although Washington intended for the award to be a permanent institution, only three were awarded during the Revolution, and none after. In 1932 the award was revived as the Purple Heart, to commemorate the bicentennial of Washington's birth.

One of the reasons the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse was that there was considerable resistance in early America to the whole idea of military awards and decorations. They were thought of as symbols of European monarchies and inappropriate in a democracy. Even as late as 1861, the Commanding General of the United States Army, Lieutenant General Winfield Scott, opposed introducing medals and decorations as "contrary to the spirit of our institutions."

That attitude notwithstanding, an unofficial decoration came into being at the end of the Revolutionary War. In 1783 the Society of the Cincinnati was formed by former officers of the Continental Army. Membership was limited to those who had been officers in the Army. The badge of the Society, an eagle suspended from a neck ribbon, soon became known as the Order of the Cincinnati. When the American Army was reformed in 1789, many officers who were members of the Society wore the badge on their uniforms, although it was never an officially recognized insignia. Some European officers who fought in the Revolution also wore the badge when they returned to Europe—among them General Tadeusz Kosciuszko, who returned to Poland to lead the rebellion against Russia. By the early 1800s, many European countries recognized the "Order of the Cincinnati" as the American equivalent of an order of knighthood.

Brevets

During the Revolutionary War the primary means of recognizing combat bravery and other meritorious service was through a system of brevet promotions. Under this system an officer was recognized by being promoted to the next higher rank. Although he wore the insignia and was entitled to the privilege of his brevet rank, he still continued to receive pay at his permanent rank.

The first brevet awarded to an American officer was the promotion to Captain of Lieutenant Henry Knox, Continental Artillery. Knox later became the first Chief of American Artillery, the second Commanding General of the U.S. Army (after Washington), and the first Secretary of War.

The brevet system originally applied to officers only. During the War with Mexico, Congress authorized the awarding of brevet commissions to enlisted men—the first battlefield commissions. However, the great majority of brevet promotions still went to officers. Brevet promotions were the primary means of recognizing officers up through the end of the Civil War. But the system was too sensitive to political pressure, and there were many abuses and scandals during the War. Brevet promotions were still conferred up through the War with Spain, but the heart of the system was effectively killed in 1870 when a change in Army regulations no longer permitted the wear of brevet rank.

The Certificate of Merit

In 1847, during the War with Mexico, Congress established the Certificate of Merit as a means of recognizing combat bravery of enlisted men. Eligibility was extended to non-commissioned officers in 1854. The award consisted of a certificate signed by the President and the Secretary of War, and an extra two dollars a month in pay. Five hundred and forty-five American soldiers won Certificates of Merit during the Mexican War. It is most likely that a certain percentage of them would have won Medals of Honor, had that award existed then.

In 1905 a medal was introduced for the Certificate of Merit. In 1918 it was officially discontinued and declared to be the equivalent of the Distinguished Service Medal. Soldiers who held the Certificate of Merit were requested to turn that medal in and receive a Distinguished Service Medal as a replacement. In 1934 a further ruling changed the status of the Certificate of Merit from the equivalent of the Distinguished Service Medal to the equivalent of the Distinguished Service Cross. During its 71-year history, 1,206 enlisted men and non-commissioned officers won Certificates of Merit.

Congressional Medals

The United States Congress has awarded medals to Americans (both soldiers and civilians) since 1776. Congressional Medals have usually been large and not intended for wear on a uniform. Quite often these Congressional Medals have been confused with the Medal of Honor. In some cases, a Congressionally voted medal has, in fact, been the Medal of Honor, which has added to the confusion.

In 1927, Congress voted the Medal of Honor to Army Air Corps Reserve Captain Charles A. Lindbergh.

In 1946 Congress voted a Congressional Medal to the late Air Force Captain William (Billy) Mitchell:

That the President of the United States is requested to cause a gold medal to be struck, with suitable emblems, devices, and inscriptions, to be presented to the late William Mitchel…

He was actually awarded the Medal of Honor, although there is nothing in the language of the resolution specifically mentioning the Medal of Honor.

Congressional Medals have also been awarded to American civilians for their contributions in various fields. Bob Hope and John Wayne, among others, are recipients of such medals.

Congressional Medals, and the accompanying "Thanks of the Congress," were originally considered the nation's highest military distinction. An officer who had received the Thanks of the Congress had this fact noted in his entry in the Army Register, along with his brevets and decorations. Even after the creation of the Medal of Honor, the Thanks of the Congress was considered for many years to be the ultimate military distinction.

In 1871 Congress voted a Congressional Gold Medal to Sergeant (later Major) George F. Robinson for saving the life of Secretary of State William Seward during an attempted assassination in 1865:

That the Secretary of the Treasury be, and is hereby directed to cause to be prepared and presented to the said George F. Robinson a gold medal, with appropriate devices and inscriptions commemorative of the heroic conduct…

The language of the resolution is almost exactly the same as Billy Mitchell's 75 years later. While Mitchell was actually awarded a Medal of Honor, Robinson received a specially struck medal. But the Army apparently considered this and other Congressional Medals to be the equivalent of the Medal of Honor. In the 1901 Army Register, Robinson appears in the Medal of Honor list.

The first Congressional Medal was voted in 1776 to George Washington for his role in forcing the British out of Boston. Congress ordered Benjamin Franklin in Paris to have the Medal designed and struck in gold. Altogether, eight officers were voted Congressional Gold Medals during the Revolution.

Three enlisted men also received Congressional Medals, but in silver. The so-called "Andre Medals" were awarded, along with a two hundred dollar bonus, to the three New York militiamen who captured British Major John Andre, the man to whom Benedict Arnold passed the secrets of West Point.

During the nineteenth century, the Thanks of the Congress to military leaders took on several different forms. Quite often a special medal was struck. In some cases a sword was presented to the officer. And in some cases, just a resolution was passed, but no physical object was presented. But in all cases, the recognition was prominently noted in the Army Register. Five of the thirty-nine Army officers who received the Thanks of the Congress during the nineteenth century were Artillerymen [Table 1a].

The most prominent American Artilleryman in the 50 years prior to the Civil War was Lieutenant General Winfield Scott. He dominated the American military scene in a way no individual has before or since. Scott, known as "Old Fuss and Feathers," started his military career in the Regiment of Light Artillery in 1808. By 1814 he was a brigadier general. In 1841 he became a major general and assumed the post of Commanding General of the U.S. Army. He held that post for 20 years.

In 1814 the Congress voted Scott a gold medal for his leadership of U.S. forces in the Niagara and Chippewa Campaigns. In 1848 he was again voted a gold medal for his leadership at Vera Cruz. Scott was the last Commanding General of the Army (or later, Chief of Staff) to command an American Expeditionary Force in combat. He was 61 years old at the time. He also received a brevet promotion to lieutenant general for the Mexican War. Only two other Army officers have received the Thanks of the Congress more than once—William T. Sherman and Zachary Taylor (three times).

Scott's predecessor as Commanding General of the U.S. Army, and his long-time personal rival, was Major General Alexander Macomb. Macomb started his career in the Cavalry but quickly transferred to the Engineers. In the early days of the U.S. Army, Artillery and Engineers were considered interchangeable, both branches requiring a high level of mathematical skills. In fact, from 1797 to 1802 the two branches were combined under the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers. In Macomb's last assignment before he became a General Officer, he was transferred to the 3rd Artillery, which he commanded from 1812 to 1814.

Macomb was promoted to brigadier general and assigned the command of the Lake Champlain area. In September 1814 at Plattsburg, New York, a force of U.S. Army Regulars and New York and Vermont Militia repelled a superior British force. Macomb was voted the Thanks of the Congress, and a Congressional Gold Medal, along with a brevet promotion to major general.

In 1828 Macomb was named Commanding General of the U.S. Army. Winfield Scott immediately submitted his resignation from the Army but it was rejected. Macomb held the position until 1841, when he died in office, and was succeeded by Scott.

During the Civil War, four Union generals who started their careers as Artillerymen were voted the Thanks of the Congress: Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Thomas. Major General Meade was the Union Commander at Gettysburg, the battle which is considered the turning point of the Civil War. Union Artillery, skillfully employed by Meade's Chief of Artillery, Brigadier General Henry Hunt, was the decisive factor in that battle.

The Role of Honor

One of the Army's major contributions in the field of public health was Dr. Walter Reed's fight against Yellow Fever in 1900-1901. Working with volunteers from the Army of Occupation in Cuba, Reed and his team of doctors concentrated on determining how the deadly disease was transmitted. Some volunteers were infected by mosquito bites or blood transfusions under controlled conditions. Other volunteers spent weeks sleeping in the soiled bedding of deceased yellow fever victims.

All those involved showed an incredible amount of courage, but since their service was not under combat conditions, the Medal of Honor was not the appropriate recognition. In 1929 Congress created the Roll of Honor to recognize the heroism of Reed and his volunteers:

…by an act approved February 28, 1929, authorized and directed the Secretary of War to publish annually in the Army Register a Roll of Honor on which shall be carried the following names, and to define in appropriate language the part taken by each of these persons in the yellow fever investigation in Cuba.

The same act provided that a gold medal be presented to each person named in the roll, or to the representatives of those who have died.

The Roll of Honor consisted of Dr. (Major) Walter Reed, three doctors, and 18 volunteers, three of whom were Artillerymen. Private John H. Andrus, Battery F, 2nd Artillery, was voluntarily infected by a blood transfusion. Sergeant Albert Covington and Private Paul Hamann, both of Battery N, 2nd Artillery, were infected by subcutaneous injections. All three developed yellow fever, but all three survived.

Andrus and Hamann were discharged from the Army in 1902, but Covington stayed to become a career soldier. He retired from the Army in 1926 as a staff sergeant.

The Roll of Honor was published annually in the Army Register up through the end of World War II.

The First Medals of Honor

The Medal of Honor was not the idea of any one man or any one group, but an Artillery officer was among the earliest prime movers for its creation. By early 1861, the Adjutant General of the Army, Colonel Edward D. Townsend (originally, 2nd Artillery) was actively lobbying for the creation of an American Military Decoration with the Secretary of War, the Chairman of the Senate Military Committee, and his boss, Lieutenant General Winfield Scott. He encountered the most resistance from Scott.

The U.S. Navy picked up on the idea and on 21 July 1861, Congress authorized the first Medal of Honor for the Navy. Partially because of Scott's resistance, the Army Medal of Honor was not created until 12 July 1862.

The first presentation of an American Medal of Honor was made on 25 March 1863 to six surviving members of a Union raiding party that penetrated deep into Southern territory the previous year. The event has become known in popular history as "The Great Locomotive Chase." Private Jacob Parrott, 33rd Ohio Infantry, was the first U.S. serviceman to be presented with the Medal of Honor. Later, thirteen other members of the raiding party were also awarded the Medal of Honor. Eight of the original group of twenty-three had been executed as spies. Four of them were awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously. The two executed civilian leaders of the raid did not receive the Medal of Honor, nor for some unknown reason, did the two other executed military participants.

The awarding of the Medal of Honor was authorized for actions retroactive to the start of the Civil War. This was later extended to the start of the Indian Wars as well.

The earliest action in the Civil War for which the Medal of Honor was awarded took place during a skirmish in Alexandria, Virginia on 24 May 1861. Private Francis E. Brownell, 11th New York Infantry, was awarded the Medal of Honor for shooting the Confederate soldier who was "the murderer" of Colonel Elmer Ellsworth, the man who introduced the Zouave uniform to America.

The very first military action for which a Medal of Honor was awarded took place during the Indian Wars. On 14 February 1861, Assistant Surgeon (First Lieutenant) Bernard J. D. Irwin led a rescue column to relieve a 60-man detachment of the 7th Infantry that was trapped by Chiricauhua Apaches under Cochise.

With only fourteen men mounted on mules, Irwin fought his way over a 100-mile stretch of desert, captured horses from the Apaches, and lifted the siege. He became America's first Medal of Honor winner, but he did not receive it until 1894.

The Army and the Navy Medals of Honor

From the very beginning there were some significant differences between the Army and the Navy Medals of Honor. Both Medals were originally authorized for enlisted men only, but Army officers became eligible in 1863.

Award of the Navy Medal of Honor to officers was not authorized until 1915, but it was made retroactive to the start of the Vera Cruz Campaign. During that action officers seem to have made up for lost time. Naval and Marine officers accounted for thirty-nine of the fifty-six Medals of Honor won at Vera Cruz. Among them was the U.S. Task Force commander, Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, and the Marine Corps' legendary Smedley Darlington Butler.

Another major difference between the Army and the Navy Medals of Honor was the reasons for which they could be awarded. From the start, the Army Medal of Honor was only intended for combat bravery; although in the early years of the Medal of Honor's history that criterion was not always rigidly applied.

The Navy Medal of Honor, on the other hand, could be awarded for any act of heroism, combat or non-combat, in the line of the Naval Profession.

In 1919 the Navy even went so far as to create a second Navy Medal of Honor. The "New Medal of Honor" was awarded for combat heroism only, while the "Old Medal of Honor" was awarded for non-combat action.

At about the same time, the Marine Corps established its Brevet Medal, to recognize officers who held brevet promotions confirmed by the Congress. By that time brevet promotions were no longer being awarded, so the Brevet Medal became obsolete right after it was awarded to the twenty-three Marine officers still on active duty who had at one time been awarded brevets. The Brevet Medal is considered right behind the Medal of Honor and ahead of the Navy Cross and Distinguished Service Cross in order of precedence.

The Navy retained it's two Medal of Honor system until 1942 when Congressional legislation established one Navy Medal of Honor for combat heroism only.

The Pyramid of Honor

Prior to World War I the award of the Medal of Honor was much more frequent because it, and the Certificate of Merit, were the only American military awards. In 1918 legislation was passed creating the "Pyramid of Honor" concept and establishing the foundations of the modern American military awards system. The pre-eminent position of the Medal of Honor was formalized and the lesser decorations of the Distinguished Service Cross, Distinguished Service Medal, and the Silver Star were created.

Requirements for the Medal of Honor were tightened up, and the level of documentation and proof required was made greater. From World War I on, the award process became less frequent and the citations became longer and more detailed.

The Medal of Honor also became more of a posthumous award after this point. Prior to World War I it was rarely awarded posthumously. Only eleven were awarded posthumously during the Civil War and one during the Indian Wars. During World War I, twenty-eight percent of the awards were posthumous, and since then, sixty percent have been posthumous.

The 1916 Review Board

Before the 1918 legislation, the Army did some "house cleaning" of its own Medal of Honor rolls. In 1916 it convened a special review board of five retired general officers under the chairmanship of former Commanding General of the Army Nelson A. Miles, himself a Medal of Honor winner. All together, the board purged 910 names from the Army Medal of Honor list.

Eight hundred sixty-four of those names made up the roster of the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry. In June of 1863, the entire regiment was offered the Medal of Honor to extend their enlistments for the up-coming battle at Gettysburg. Only 309 soldiers accepted the offer, but the whole regiment still received the Medal of Honor through a clerical error. Even then, the 309 soldiers who extended their enlistments didn't actually fight at Gettysburg.

The Board also revoked the Medals of the 29-man honor honor guard that escorted President Lincoln's body back to Springfield, Illinois. The remaining 17 individuals lost their Medals of Honor because they were not received for combat actions, or because they were civilians. Six civilian scouts who were originally awarded the Medal of Honor for combat actions during the Indian Wars lost their Medals on this technicality. Among them was William F. ("Buffalo Bill") Cody.

The Double Winners

Nineteen American servicemen won the Medal of Honor twice. The first to do so was Thomas Custer, brother of George Custer, who won the Medal of Honor twice during the closing days of the Civil War. Brother Tom's Medals never failed to rankle George, who once wrote to his wife, "Tom appeared at formal mess last night wearing both of his baubles." Tom Custer died at the Little Big Horn in 1876 with his brother.

Several of the double Medal of Honor winners were Navy men who won both Medals of Honor for non-combat heroism. A few also won one Medal for a combat action and one for a non-combat action. Chief Boatswain John McCloy won both of his Medals of Honor for combat action in two different wars.

Perhaps the most spectacular of the double Medal of Honor winners were Major (later Major General) Smedley D. Butler, and Gunnery Sergeant Dan Daily, both of the Marine Corps. In intertwining careers that ran from the Boxer Rebellion through the 1920s, Butler also won the Marine Corps Brevet Medal and the Army Distinguished Service Medal; and Daily also won both a Navy Cross and an Army Distinguished Service Cross. Daily and Butler both won their second Medals of Honor in the same action in the 1915 Haitian Campaign. In fact, Butler was Daily's commanding officer and recommended him for the award.

The last double Medal of Honor winners were four Marines who were awarded both an Army Medal of Honor and a Navy Medal of Honor for the same act during World War I. Why or how this happened has never been explained. Stranger still, there was one Marine who won the Army Medal of Honor but was not awarded the Navy Medal of Honor as well.

Acts of Congress

The Medal of Honor has been awarded through special act of Congress to nine Unknowns; four American Unknown Soldiers and the Unknowns of Belgium, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Rumania.

It has also been awarded to individuals by special legislation eight times. These special awards include Charles Lindbergh, Polar explorer Admiral Richard Byrd, and Army General Adolphus Greely. The last award to an individual by special legislation was to General William (Billy) Mitchel in 1946.

The most recent award of the Medal of Honor was in 1984 to the Unknown of the Vietnam War.

Awards to Unknowns have always been the Army Medal of Honor.

The Medal of Honor Today

Since 1942 the only change in the Medal of Honor has been the 1960 addition of a separate design for the U.S. Air Force. It remains to this day the ultimate military distinction.

There is a tradition that anyone holding the Medal of Honor rates a salute, regardless of his rank, from anyone else in uniform. Although it is not, as many believe, specifically required by military tradition, it is a tradition that is widely observed.

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